Explanations Of The Interactions Between Information
Technology And Society
Author: Mr D Wilson
Source of document: Open University
Date: 12/5/96
Woodward's contribution to this approach was to focus on `technology' as the most significant contingency shaping organisation structure and behaviour. Using this approach, Woodward's analysis led her to the conclusion that given technologies require management to adopt particular forms of organisation if their enterprises are to be commercially successful. In this analysis she developed a model of the relationship between advanced types of automation and organisation structure which is of considerable contemporary interest. She suggested that advanced production technologies are used most effectively where a specific form of management control system is adopted, which in turn has implications for the content of work and relations between management and employees. In short, she argued that advanced technological change would lead to `mechanical' and integrated forms of management control which were incorporated within the technology itself. This would relieve management of the need to direct and personally supervise the work force, whose performance would be subject to control by machinery.
In contrast to such work as Woodward's, labour process theory seeks to uncover the social and economic interests which lie behind technological change. Not surprisingly this leads to a radically different set of conclusions regarding the effects of new technology. Labour process theory has its origins in the work of Karl Marx, but its recent re-emergence can be attributed to the publication of a book written by Harry Braverman - Labour and Monopoly Capital published in 1974. Braverman set out to challenge what he saw as the technological determinist assumptions of writers such as Woodward, offering a model of the evolution of modern enterprises which identified the capitalist search for increased profitability and management concern for increased control over work as the driving forces behind technological change. The conclusions reached contradicted the view that automation would inevitably raise the levels of skill and autonomy of the work force. Rather, Braverman argued, automated technologies were introduced by management with the intention of deskilling the content of jobs in order to increase management control over the labour process.
Source: McLoughlin, I and Clark, J. (1988b) `Analysing technological change at work' in McLoughlin, Ian, and Clark, Jon, (1988) Technological Change at Work. Open University Press. Milton Keynes.
Society interacts with Information Technology (IT) in the home, during leisure and at work. There has been much study conducted on the interaction at work. This has included theories on why IT is introduced and how it affects the work force both during introduction and after the technology is in place. In this essay I will distinguish between the Technological Determinist and Social Shaping explanations for the development and implementation of IT in the workplace and comment on the usefulness of the contrast between these two views in assisting an understanding of the interactions between IT and society.
In the first extract, Woodwards use of the Contingency theory[1] takes the viewpoint that an organisation's management structure must change to accommodate technology to remain competitive. This theory takes the technological determinist view that technology is the primary variable that forces management to adopt a management structure that is then imposed on the work force. Relationships between worker and manager are changed. With advanced production technology the worker is supervised and monitored by the machinery. The actual structure will depend on the type of production being done by the company. Both the workers and management have little participation in the company's organisation due to the technological control imposed.
In the second extract the Labour Process theory[1] shows the introduction of new technology from a social shaping view point. This is based on Marxist views that capitalist management is driven by the search for profitability and control of the work force. The management introduce technology that improves performance increasing profitability. A Taylorist approach to worker control, breaking jobs into simple tasks is used. The deskilling that can result from automation is not seen from the technological determinist view as inevitable, more a continuation of the traditional social class struggle between the worker and manager, being emphasised by new technology keeping managers in control.
The Strategic Choice theory[1] takes the middle ground between hard line technological determinism and the social shaping of technology. This modifies the Contingency theory by highlighting choice. Although certain production processes may lead to the introduction of technology, the type of technology will be chosen by management. This will be part of a negotiation process between management and the work force to identify what to automate and how it should be automated. This introduction will then be followed by development of the technology by the work force to customise it to the company's production process and culture. Sometimes workers will receive training to increase their skills to enable them to operate the new technology.
Another view is that of the demand pull and technology push theories[2]. Demand pull is based on market forces creating a demand for a technology that is then met by a new technology. This follows the social shaping approach. The technology push approach takes the opposite view, that technology is invented as a natural process and because it is there it is used. An example of this would be the computer. In the 1950's there was no commercial demand but it was pushed by technological development and made available to society. This availability eventually created an emerging market that pulled the computer further into society.
The introduction by British Rail of the TOPS freight information system[3] supports the Strategic Choice theory. The system was based on strategic objectives. These were to reduce economic difficulties that may suggest a Labour Process approach of increased profits but this was not the main reason. A top down approach was used which again could point to Labour Process by imposing new technology on the work force however this was not so. The top down approach was used to reduce the effect of middle management resistance to change. Negotiations were conducted with the unions to give the workers a voice during the change process.
The introduction of Robotics into Japanese society could be seen as technological determinism. Japan's manufacturing industry has been continually improving through Total Quality Management (TQM). This drive for continual improvement in product quality would inevitably result in the use of robots. These can repeatedly produce the same work to the same standard. Robots would be ideal for repetitive manual labour. The introduction of robots has adopted throughout Japan and so the technological determinist assumption may be correct. However, TQM has been adopted within Europe but robots have not been introduced on the same scale. Kennedy's study[4] of this has shown that there are social factors that determine the successful introduction of robotics. Some of these being; a highly educated work force, availability of engineers, availability of manual labour and the relationship between employers and the unions. For Japan these factors were correct and so Robotics has flourished. Within Europe they were not and so the adoption of robotics has been slower.
The technological determinist view ignores society. By taking this view, obvious social implications of the introduction of new technology will be missed by management. These implications could be planned for and prevented if a social shaping view is taken. For Japanese society the robot allows the educated worker to do more interesting jobs. For European society the robot replaces the worker making him/her unemployed.
The technological determinist approach to Taylorism, in that the introduction of technology inevitably results in the deskilling of the work force is not adopted by Lane in her study of the flexible specialisation of the work force[5]. This comparison of the UK and German work force shows that the German work force is lead by technology resulting in multi skilling or polyvalent workers. The jobs do change and occasionally jobs previously done by the traditional worker are taken by a machine. However, new jobs are created in the maintenance and programming of the machine. For the UK there has been a thrust to increase control over the work force by reducing union power. This approach has not produced a polyvalent worker. The different approach by the two societies enhances the social shaping view of introduction of new technology into the workplace. German society creates preconditions for the introduction of new technology.
Hartman et al describe how the labour process affects the specifications of Computer Numerically Controlled machines[6]. These specifications are a result of sociotechnical design and improvement. An understanding of this process will result in management and the work force being able to directly influence the outcome.
The comparison between the Contingency theory and the Labour Process theory show the two extremes of technical determinism and the social shaping of technology. The Strategic Choice theory takes aspects from both extremes to provide the middle ground between the two. This idea of a middle ground also follows from the Push Pull theory, with technology pushing and market forces or society pulling. By looking at the introduction of robotics into one society it could be argued that technological determinism is at work. However when other societies are also viewed the social shaping aspects of the introduction of robotics are seen. Again using Lanes study of Flexible Specialisation, the individual approach to either society may suggest technological determinism. The UK worker is being kept single skilled under the control of management but when both societies are compared this view does not hold and the social factors can be seen. The above seems to suggest that there is more evidence of the social shaping view of the interaction between IT and society than the technological determinist view.
REFERENCES
[1] McLoughlinI and Clark. (1988) Analysing Technological
Change At Work.
[2] Freeman, C. (1987) The Case for Technological Determinism.
[3] McLoughlin and Clark. (1988) Technological Change at Work.
[4] Kennedy, P. (1993) Robotics, Automation, and a New Industrial
Revolution.
[5] Lane, C. (1988) The Pursuit of Flexible Specialisation in
Britain and West Germany.
[6] Hartmann, Nicholas, Sorge and Warner. (1983) Computerised
machine tools, manpower consequences and skill utilisation: a
study of... .